GEOTOURISM POTENTIAL AND CHALLENGES IN THE ARCHIPELAGO OF SAN ANDRÉS, PROVIDENCIA, AND SANTA CATALINA (COLOMBIA)
POTENCIAL GEOTURÍSTICO Y DESAFÍOS EN EL ARCHIPIÉLAGO DE SAN ANDRÉS, PROVIDENCIA Y SANTA CATALINA (COLOMBIA)
Dino Carmelo Manco-Jaraba
Master in Gestión Ambiental y Energética en las Organizaciones at
Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, España
Universidad de La Guajira
Colombia
[dinomancojaraba@gmail.com]
Carlos Alberto Ríos Reyes
Ph.D. in Applied Sciences at University of Wolverhapmton
Universidad Industrial de Santander
Colombia
[carios@uis.edu.co]
Óscar Mauricio Castellanos Alarcón
Master Course in Geology at Shimane University
Universidad de Pamplona
Colombia [oscarmca@yahoo.es]
Para citar el artículo: Manco-Jaraba, D., Ríos, C., & Castellanos, Ó. (2024). Geotourism potential and challenges in the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina (Colombia). Turismo y Sociedad, XXXIV, 67-110. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18601/01207555.n34.03
Fecha de recepción: 26 de julio de 2021
Fecha de modificación: 2 de febrero de 2022
Fecha de aceptación: 11 de mayo de 2023
Abstract
The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina (Colombia) is a well-established tourist destination with numerous geosites that show a marvelous natural and cultural heritage of great importance and attractive for the development of geotourism. Although this region is visited mainly for its spectacular coastal landscape, until now, there was a lack of geological information and interpretation about those emblematic geosites. Therefore, it is very important to develop a geoconservation strategy by promoting sustainable geotourism through improving the knowledge of the geological elements of this region. The landscape value of this region must be globally recognized to improve and protect its heritage resources through geotourism and geoeducation with geoconservation purposes, so that it motivates an efficient management that describes guidelines that promote the development of an appropiate tourist infrastructure, centers of scientific and cultural interpretation, dissemination and educational materials, active exchange with geoparks, continuous improvement and participation of the local communities.
Keywords: coastal geomorphology, geodiversity, geotourism, geoeducation, Archipelago, local communities.
Resumen
El archipiélago de San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina (Colombia) es un destino turístico consolidado con numerosos geositios que muestran un maravilloso patrimonio natural y cultural de gran importancia y atractivo para el desarrollo del geoturismo. Si bien esta región es visitada principalmente por su espectacular paisaje costero, hasta ahora faltaba información e interpretación geológica sobre estos emblemáticos geositios. Por lo tanto, es muy importante desarrollar una estrategia de geoconservación que promueva el geoturismo sostenible por medio de la mejora del conocimiento de los elementos geológicos de esta región. El valor paisajístico de esta región debe ser reconocido a nivel mundial para mejorar y proteger sus recursos patrimoniales por medio del geoturismo y la geoeducación con fines de geoconservación, de manera que se motive una gestión eficiente que describa lineamientos que promuevan el desarrollo de una adecuada infraestructura turística, centros de interpretación científica y cultural, materiales de difusión y educativos, intercambio activo con geoparques, mejora continua y participación de las comunidades locales.
Palabras clave: geomorfología costera, geodiversidad, geoturismo, geoeducación, archipiélago, comunidades locales.
1. Introduction
Colombia is a country with extremely rich geodiversity, represented by mineral and energy resources, water reservoirs, mountain ranges, caves, fossil deposits, volcanoes, snow-capped mountains, hot springs and hundreds of rocks of different compositions, origins, and ages, which reveal important evidence of the geological history of our country. Colombia's geological heritage, consisting of a set of geodiversity elements of high-value, includes places of great scenic beauty as well as those of little visual or aesthetic interest, but of valuable scientific or didactic interest. Geoscientists have been discovering new geopatrimonial sites that enrich and diversify Colombia's geological heritage. However, at present, most of them are seriously threatened for not having adequate protection measures.
In this sense, the Colombian Geological Service, as the authority responsible for ensuring the protection of the Nation's geological heritage, is promoting actions aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of geological heritage, based on its research, conservation, use as a resource, dissemination, and enhancement. The Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina (ASAPSC) is situated in the Caribbean Sea about 750 km northwest of mainland Colombia (Figure 1), and it encompasses a total area of 57 km2, including the outer cays, reefs, atolls, and sand banks. San Andrés is the largest island in this archipelago, it has an area of 26 km2; Providencia (17 km2) and Santa Catalina (1 km2) islands are located 80 km to the northeast. Although the archipelago is geographically closer to Nicaragua (Central America) than to Colombia (South America), the ASAPSC has been part of the Republic of Colombia since 1822, and it is rich in geodiversity and biodiversity.
The ASAPSC is one of the most extensive reef systems in the Atlantic and it constitutes the largest extension of coral reefs in Colombia; in fact, the island platforms of seven of its ten true atolls extend over 2,188 km2 (Díaz, 2000). Coastal erosion is the most important geomorphological process and it has largely participated in the creation of a very rich geological diversity, which produces cracks, caverns and necks in the lower part of the rocky escarpments that make up the margins of the islands, triggering phenomena (such as rock falls or landslides) that put life at risk, and the homes of the inhabitants of the island, as well as its tourism and economy. Its marine and coastal ecosystems are home to its famous "sea of seven colors". Regarding people, the native population, the "raizales", has its own language: Creole. On the other hand, it is a coastal region, which promotes an interaction between man and the environment that is completely different from what takes place in other regions of the country. This rich and diverse natural and cultural heritage makes this area one of the best natural and cultural tourist destinations in Colombia for both Colombian and foreign people.
The worldwide concern for the conservation and valuation of the natural and cultural heritage has arisen because of understanding that a territory can have invaluable heritage wealth and, therefore, it must be preserved for future generations, which is essential for sustainable development.
Geoconservation is the identification, protection, and management of sites and landscapes that are not only important for their rocks, fossils, minerals, or other geological or geomorphological features of interest, but which also make a special contribution to our Earth heritage and which can illustrate the processes which formed the planet. (Geopark Management Toolkit, n.d., par. 13)
The main objetives of this paper are to emphasize the geotourism potential of the the coastal region of the ASAPSC and to identify the most suitable geosites for geotourism development with geoconservation purposes, in order to capture the tourists' attention through the use of natural and cultural heritage elements as a novel strategy for socioeconomic development of the region.
2. Literature review
"The term geodiversity is a relatively recent concept, but one that is widely used and disseminated, with a marked tendency to consider it as a synonym of "geological diversity" (Ríos et al., 2020, p. 101) (e.g., Al-Zubaidi et al., 2014; Durán et al., 1998; González et al., 1997; Serrano-Cañadas & Ruiz-Flaño, 2007a, 2007b; Sharples, 1995). "Geodiversity is a vital concept for the efficient management of geological heritage (Gray, 2008), therefore it requires a very adequate definition" (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108). Geodiversity can be defined as the geological diversity of a region around elements such as geological structures (faults, folds, stratifications, foliations), minerals, rocks, fossils, or soils, as well as geomorphological features of relief and natural resources (Brilha et al., 2018; Gray, 2013; Gray et al., 2013; Koh et al., 2014; Kozlowski et al., 2004; Urquí-Carcavilla et al., 2007). Kozlowski et al. (2004) define geodiversity as "the natural variety on the surface of the earth, referring to geological and geomorphological aspects, soils and water resources, as important as other systems created as a result of endogenous and exogenous processes and human activity" (as cited in Giudice et al., 2021, p. 51288). "According to Urquí-Carcavilla et al. (2007), the existence of elements that constitute the geological heritage of a region contributes as a geosource to the social, economic, and cultural development of the society" (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108).
Geotourism is a relatively new form of tourism that is progressively making its way in Colombia.
The aesthetic and scenic significance of the elements that constitute the geological heritage of a region can turn them into attractive geosciences for the development of geotourism, development policies to eradicate poverty, promote sustainable growth, defend human rights and democracy, promote gender equality and overcome environmental and climate challenges, through which tourists can not only enjoy but also learn from the geological heritage and promote good practices for its geoconservation. (Dowling & Newsome 2010; Hose, 2011, as cited in Ríos-Reyes et al. 2021, p. 108)
Geotourism represents a part of tourist activity, whose main attraction is the geological heritage (Newsome & Dowling, 2010; Hose, 2011).
According to Turner (2006), this definition is based on the concept of geodiversity, being a novel form of tourism that has been growing on a large scale. According to Hose (2008), geotourism is defined as the provision of resources and interpretive services to promote the value and social benefit of places of geological and geomorphological interest and to ensure their conservation and use by tourists beyond appreciation esthetic. (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108).
In 2011:
At the International Geotourism Congress held at the Arouca Geopark (Portugal) under the auspice of UNESCO, discussions around Geotourism in Action were held; where the Arouca Declaration was consolidated, through which they sought to unite efforts to achieve the following definition of geotourism: a form of tourism based on the strengthening of the identity of a territory, considering its geology, landscape, environment, culture, aesthetic values, heritage and well-being of its inhabitants, under a sustainable concept, which contribute to the benefit of future generations (Arouca, 2011). However, numerous authors have approached this concept from different perspectives, providing different definitions (Urquí, López, and Valsero, 2007; Dowling & Newsome, 2010). Therefore, geotourism must address the social, cultural, environmental, patrimonial, and geological definition of a region, not only for the observation and appreciation of the elements that constitute it but also for the understanding of the processes that have acted in the evolution of the Earth (Arouca, 2011) in order to identify, protect and conserve its geosites (Hose, 2011). (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108).
Moreover:
Geotourism is focused on following several general principles that basically promote the custody of the region, the well-being of local communities, and the quality of the experience for tourists (Cariño, Murrieta, and Contreras 2012). Geotourism has become an important activity (Dowling and Newsome 2010; Torabi et al. 2017). Its main objectives include the geoscientific knowledge transfer, the sensitization in relation to geological heritage and its conservation needs, the preservation of the assets that constitute it, allowing its legacy to be transmitted to future generations, the promotion of its potential as a georesource for the enjoyment and learning of tourists, and the sustainable development of tourism (Urquí, López, and Valsero 2007; Ruban, 2015). According to Schaefer and Farias (2020), geotourism represents a niche tourism that seeks to rescue those destinations that are not traditional for future generations or that give a new aspect to conventional tourism through a novel alternative for the development of tourism. (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108)
According to Arouca Declaration on Geotourism (2011), it is necessary to integrate geodiversity-biodiversity and cultural elements to insert them in the tourist context. "In recent years, alternatives for the use of geological heritage and the preservation of geodiversity have been promoted, since geotourism linked to geodiversity has been activated throughout the world" (Koh et al., 2014, as cited in Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 108).
The importance of tourism has been increasing in the development of the Colombian economy, this has contributed to the generation of new sources of employment, the increase in the arrival of international tourists, strengthening of national destinations, greater air connectivity, support for projects friendly with the environment and the improvement of the hotel offer in the country. (Ríos-Reyes et al., 2021, p. 109)
2.1 Geological background
The ASAPSC constitutes one of the most outstanding physiographic features in the Caribbean Sea: it comprises nine volcanic islands (from south to north: Albuquerque, Este-Sureste, San Andrés, Providencia, Roncador, Quitasueño, Serrana, Serranilla and Bajo Nuevo), and other submarine volcanic (ridges and seamounts), tectonic and sedimentary landforms (Idárraga-García et al., 2021). It has "a long geological history which is tightly linked to the formation of the Caribbean Sea to at least early Cenozoic times" (Geister & Díaz, 2007, p. 9), and it is made up of a set of oceanic islands, atolls and coral banks aligned in a NE direction and parallel to the Nicaraguan rise (Gamboa et al., 2012), which apparently originated from volcanoes arranged along tectonic fractures in the oceanic crust, oriented predominantly towards the NE and SW, and are limited to the north by the Pedro Fracture and to the south by the Hess Escarpment. It is mainly made up of volcanic rocks, some intercalations of reef limestones between volcanic series and marine deposits (Geister & Díaz, 2007). The current structure of the reef complexes is the result of the subsidence of the volcanic basements, which have been covered with carbonates of biogenic origin with the presence of corals, algae, and molluscs, among others, which occurred during the Neogene and the Quaternary (Díaz et al., 1996). A generalized geological map of the ASAPSC is presented in Figure 2.
San Andrés Island is crossed from south to north by a small mountain range with coconut trees; it shows a flat topography and La Loma Hill as the highest point (85 masl) in the island. Its length from north to south is 13 km, while its width from east to west is 3 km.
"San Andrés' soils indicate that their formation is due to the eruption of a volcano, which threw rocks older than the seafloor to the surface, creating the islands. Despite this, there is fertile soil, primarily red clay" (LAC Geo, 2020, par. 14). It is easy to find small sandy deposits on the island, especially in the neighborhood of La Loma Cove.
Aside from the main settlements, the island is almost entirely covered in grass, trees, and other vegetation, and sand along the coastline rather than rocks. The central area is marked by a chain of hills (Flowers, Orange, Shingle, and Lion's Hill). In addition, a feature named Rock Point is located on the southeastern coast. Suky Bay lies in the central western part of the island near Cove Seaside. (LAC Geo (2020, par. 14-16)
The northern part of the island has a beach, however, the western part of the island has no beaches. The island has only small, ephemeral streams draining the land area, but it has not major rivers.
According to Vargas (2004), San Andrés Island is constituted by three geomorphological units: (1) reefs, beaches, and mangroves; (2) peripheral emerged reef platform; (3) hills and escarpments. The beaches represent a small sector of the island, are mainly to the north and east, and are characterized by having a coral and white color, with variable width and little inclination. The occurrence of reef edges is characteristic as either low cliffs or small escarpments, gently sloping platforms with jagged edges, rough surfaces, and karstic morphology. The mangroves provide a picturesque and gloomy landscape of swamps within which characteristic plant species stand out that emerge on areas of sand interspersed with peat and plant remains. The emerging reef platform area is characterized by developing a flat to gently sloping morphology with a very low relief, within which small undulations and cavities and residual hills formed by the oldest rocks (San Andrés Formation) stand out. The hilly area is oriented north and northeast in the central part of the island, highlighting geoforms such as escarpments with heights up to 30 m that border a large part of the western side of the range, plateaus, morphological depressions (El Cove) and denuded hills.
Providencia and Santa Catalina comprise three geomorphological units: one characterized by flat areas and gentle slopes (mainly beaches and mangroves), another of hills and edges with a moderate to high slope (Santa Catalina Island and cliffs), and a last one of areas of high slopes and steep cliffs observed in the central part of the island (The Peak). Additionally, along the coast there are isolated geoforms (keys or stacks such as Basalt Cay or Crab Cay) as erosive remnants.
Stratigraphically, San Andrés is constituted by sedimentary rocks of the San Andrés and San Luis formations of Middle to Upper Miocene and Pleistocene ages, respectively, and by Quaternary deposits (Bürgl, 1959). The San Andrés Formation consists of a sequence of fossiliferous sparitic microcrystalline limestones. The San Luis Formation is composed of biosparitic coralline limestones and coarse-grained to conglomeratic calcareous sandstones towards the top. Quaternary deposits include mainly clay residual soils; clay and peaty deposits with levels of calcareous sands and plant remains associated with mangroves; clay, peaty lake deposits and sandy limestone lenses, slopes (colluvium and debris); calcareous sand deposits and anthropogenic origin (sanitary and hydraulic landfills).
Providencia and Santa Catalina are mostly volcanic (Old Volcanic Series and Young Volcanic Series), with some intercalations of limestone and Quaternary marine deposits south of Providencia (Geister & Díaz, 2007). The Ancient Volcanic Series is composed of finely banded rhyolites of probably pre-Miocene or early Miocene age, forming a dome with an area of exposure that extends from east to west through the center of the island; ejection cones composed of rhyolitic breccias develop locally (Geister, 1986; Geister & Díaz, 2007). The Young Volcanic Series outcrops around the rhyolitic dome and is composed of lavas, pyroclastic and epiclastic material of mainly basaltic and dacitic composition of Middle Miocene, covered by pyroclastic deposits; locally, columnar and padded structures are observed (Geister & Díaz, 2007). The explosive volcanism of Providencia Island is recorded in pyroclastic deposits such as ash, breccias with clasts of all sizes, and tuffs that extend around the rhyolitic dome covering the other units (Geister & Díaz, 2007). On the other hand, the rhyolitic dome and younger deposits are cut by some mafic dykes with tendencies towards the NE and NW associated with extensional fracturing. The main lithological units of Santa Catalina Island comprise slag deposits that consist mainly of vesicular basalts (Geister & Díaz, 2007). Towards the south, there are intercalations of reefs and lagoon sediments from the Middle to Early Miocene with the presence of microfossils within the lava flows and pyroclastic material (Geister, 1986).
In Providencia and Santa Catalina there are Holocene terrestrial deposits restricted to beaches, swamps and sloping debris at the foot of the hills, most of these being of solely siliciclastic origin. Pleistocene deltaic deposits are visible around the coast at Kalaloo Point, emerging approximately one meter above sea level and associated with the maximum rise of this during the Sangamonian interglacial (Geister & Díaz, 2007).
The Island of San Andrés, due to its geographical position in the Caribbean region, is highly vulnerable to tropical storms and hurricanes; historical records report various disastrous hurricane events since the 1930s, and the most recent occurred in 2020 (hurricanes Eta and Iota) and 2022 (hurricane Julia). Another phenomenon that occurs frequently on the island is flooding, particularly in urban areas. According to Carvajal (2009), Providencia and Santa Catalina present different risks associated with geological processes, such as volcanism, earthquakes, tsunamis, and changes in sea level, but the main risk is linked to climatic processes, such as hurricanes.
The geomorphological processes derived from the dynamics and the environment in which these islands are framed affect them continuously and generate risks with great short-term incidence, which affect the population and infrastructure. The intense erosion and the advance of the cliffs due to the action of the waves cause destabilization of civil works, such as the road and some houses, such as those located in Rocky Point, La Florida and Lazy Hill, among others. The possibility of minor risks associated with falling blocks is generally the product of quarrying in an artisanal and informal way.
3. Methodology
Geotourism is an activity that has become popular in recent years as an innovative strategy for sustainable development. It primarily depends on geosites whose identification and subsequent assessment are important for the development of geotourism and protection of geosites (Štrba, 2019). The comprehensive evaluation of geosites is a task that numerous authors (Ansori et al., 2022; Brilha, 2016; Fassoulas et al., 2012; Kubalíková & Kirchner, 2016; Tomić et al., 2020) have committed to in order to contribute to the management and protection of geosites and, therefore, the geological heritage of a specific region.
In this study, 39 geological sites of interest located in the ASAPSC were inventoried, characterized, assessed, and qualitatively evaluated. In order to identify the potential geosites of scientific, educational and touristic interest, the methodology of Brilha (2016) was adapted and modified, and sites with a score equal to or greater than 3.0 were selected as potential geosites. For the selection of the geological sites, criteria inspired by some researchers that show the importance for geological heritage were considered (Brocx & Semeniuk, 2007, 2011; Ðurović & Ðurović, 2010; Nazaruddin, 2020). The criteria focus on geological heritage, particularly of scientific, educational, recreational, cultural, economic, and functional interest (Gray, 2004, 2005; Nazaruddin, 2020). These criteria are:
The characterization was carried out through the characteristics supported by information from the literature, detailed field observation, the description of the sites, based on the parameters of other investigations (Brilha et al., 2018; Nazaruddin, 2017, 2020). The parameters considered to carry out the qualitative assessment of geosites include typological category, heritage category, heritage subcategory, value criteria, location, and main characteristics.
4. Results and discussion
The ASAPSC has a wealth of heritage made visible by its beauty and unequaled exotic rarity. Currently, it is one of the most desired and visited sites by tourists due to its natural and cultural heritage. In this article, the selection of potential geosites were based on the above-mentioned criteria and, of course, on their natural and cultural heritage contents (Tables 1-3).
These potential geosites reveal very interesting aspects on the regional evolutionary history of the ASAPSC, including several coastal erosion and sedimentation landforms, ecosystem diversity with a rich fauna and flora, and cultural traditions of the native Raizal people. In addition, there are many other geosites that can be included in geotourism activities. However, priority should be given to the geosites further described below, because, in addition to their attractiveness and accessibility, already possess infrastructure necessary for the development of tourism. The proposed inventory of sites of geological interest includes 17 potential geosites located throughout this archipelago, which can be considered under a geoconservation perspective.
Geosites can be important at the international, national, regional or local level. Protected sites can be used to promote understanding of the history of planet Earth among the general public and for education and research. However, people are generally not aware of the risks to which they are exposed, they underestimate those they recognize and overestimate their ability to face them. Given the non-removable nature of geological elements, it is essential to have a regulatory framework for their conservation, since the abiotic world directly affects the balance of ecosystems, which inevitably conditions the existence of human beings.
The geoconservation of the geodiversity, biodiversity and cultural heritage of the ASAPSC establishes a link with the heritage values of the territory and constitutes a responsibility and obligation for public administrations and society in general, due to its intrinsic value and its possible uses in the future.
Globally, disasters are becoming more complex and are constantly growing beacuse of they are related to social and historical structures and global dynamics that reveal historically constructed risks and socio-environmental inequities. Therefore, it is essential that local communities have the capacity to manage their territory, knowing their history, being aware of the existing risks and taking measures to reduce them. That is why it is necessary to integrate risk management into the development model of the ASAPSC, and thus move towards sustainable development. This is something that has been evidenced by the natural disasters that have been affecting this island territory. Therefore, a fundamental strategy is the geoconservation of coral reefs and mangroves, since these are a protective barrier for the ASAPSC capable of dissipating wave energy by more than 95%, generating a stronger and less eroded beach system and providing food security to the islanders.
4.1 Geodiversity
The proposed geosites have an added value thanks to their landscape, to their scientific, aesthetic, historical, cultural and academic attraction, uniqueness and beauty. These features can be used as geotourism resources, which are illustrated through photographs in a didactic and explanatory way, revealing the most important geological agents that have acted in the modeling of the current landscape (Figures 3-6).
San Andrés Island (Figure 3) has an excellent diversity of geomorphology, geology, and landscape. It presents a coastal morphology with beaches (Spratt Bight, the Mansion, Rocky Cay, Sound Bay, Decameron San Luis, Tom Hooker, and Elsy Bar) (Figure 4), coastal edge, cliffs, storm deposits, mangroves, anthropic fillings, reef platform peripheral emerged, hills in the central part of the island and associated quaternary deposits. Its shape is elongated in a NS direction, with a length of 12.5 km and a maximum width of 3 km. In the central part, there are a series of hills with maximum elevations of 86 meters above sea level. The areas adjacent to the coastline are generally flat, with elevations no greater than five meters (INGEOMINAS, 1996).
The reef complex that surrounds the island is arranged in NE direction; it has an approximate length of 18 km and a maximum width of 10 km, with a total area of 97.5 km2 (Díaz, 2000). Stratigraphically, the island is made up of Neogene calcareous rocks and Quaternary deposits of different compositions. Neogene rocks are defined by two formations that contrast lithologically and morphologically: the San Andrés Formation, from the Miocene, and the San Luis Formation, from the Pliocene. Quaternary deposits are represented by artificial fill materials, sanitary and hydraulic landfills, deposits of lake origin, associated with mangrove forests and slopes and deposits of winds, beaches and storms (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012).
In Providencia and Santa Catalina stand out three sectors of beaches: Southwest, Freshwater, and Manzanillo. In addition, they are part of an extinct andesitic volcano, whose axis crosses the interior of the two islands. The extruded materials are dense and vesicular lavas, agglomerates, tuffs, and occasionally thin calcareous banks (Hubach, 1956; CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012). Figures 5-6 illustrate several aspects on the Coastal geomorphological and lithological features of Providencia and Santa Catalina islands (Colombia).
4.2 Biodiversity
Colombia is a privileged country with coasts and islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The territorial region of Colombia in the Caribbean Sea extends for 532.162 km2 (Posada et al., 2009), of which the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve has an area of approximately 180.000 km2 (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012), approximately 34% of the territory, and although it seems little, in this area there are more than 77% of the total extension of the coral areas of Colombia (INVEMAR, 2009, p. 59); therefore, it is evident that the coral areas of the ASAPSC are the most extensive, complex and developed areas of the country. Coral reefs constitute 78% of the total area of the country with a great variety of associated fauna and flora, which matches the beauty and harmony of the coral areas of the western Pacific. Coral reefs correspond to the second reef system in the Western Hemisphere with five large atolls, two barrier reefs, lagoon patches and fringe reefs and other coral formations with more than 85 species of coral and 100 species of sponges (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012).
The ASAPSC has the six environmentally strategic tropical marine ecosystems of Colombia: coral reefs, sea grasses, mangroves, rocky coastlines, beaches, and soft bottoms. It is characterized by exuberant vegetation of the arboreal and shrub type of transitional forest between dry and humid up to 20 m high, with few epiphytes and a scarce herbaceous and shrub layer (Figures 7a and 7b). The vegetation contributes to the stabilization of the soil, since it retains sand and mitigates erosion by the action of the wind. This region has four landscape units: sandy coastline (sandy beaches), rocky coastline (outcrops of coral rocks), mangrove swamp and transition zone between mangrove and terrestrial vegetation (zone associated with mangrove). In total, these units have an approximate extension of 40,000 linear meters (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012).
The coastline is one of the most important habitats on the Island of San Andrés, both for its beaches -a vital resource for tourism- and for the biodiversity it shelters, highlighting: birds, fish, mollusks, reefs, reptiles, among others, for different terrestrial organisms, for turtle nesting and as a resting place for migratory and resident birds. The rocky shoreline is distributed along the western side of the island and in sections of the eastern side between the South End, Rocky Cay, and the North End. The predominant species of flora are Melanthera aspera, Tecoma stans (Figure 7c), Cordia sebestena, Conocarpus erectus, Zoysia matrella, Sesuvium portulacastrum (Figure 7d), Ipomoea pescaprae and Lippia nodiflora, Coccoloba uvifera, Hymenocallina caribaea and Morinda royoc (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012). There are species that are not associated with a specific geomorphological unit but appear along the coastline and have characteristics that allow them to survive in the three geomorphological units.
San Andrés Island has rich floral diversity in its vast mangrove swamps, the largest mangrove forest on the island being the Old Mangrove Point Regional Park. There are several mangrove forests (Figures 7e, 7g and 7h), rich with many species of flora and fauna revitalizing the ecosystem. There are also coconut palm trees (Figure 7i), breadfruit trees, tall growth of local trees, green and lush pastoral and farmlands. The vegetation of the littoral edge of Providencia and Santa Catalina has seven strata: arboreal, sub-arboreal, shrub, climbing, herbaceous, epiphytes and crasicaule, predominantly the arboreal stratum followed by the shrub stratum, the epiphytes, being the form of life with the least representation (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012). The cliffs vegetation is the unit that represents 50% of the coastal edge of Providencia. In the sandy beach landscape unit of the islands, the dominant species by cover include Leucaena leucocephala (Wild tamarind), Hibiscus tiliaceus (Majagua), Coccoloba uvifera (sea grape), Lantana involuta (Wild sage), Blutaparon vermiculare (Beach carpet), Acacia collinsii (Cock spur), Eugenia acapulcensis (Berrys) (CORALINA-INVEMAR, 2012).
One of the most colorful and striking groups on the coast of the ASAPSC are birds, their presence in this area is due, among other things, to the fact that in the habitats that make up the coastal zone, in addition to being the first feeding and resting areas for migratory species after long journeys, they provide foraging and reproduction areas for resident species. Given its geographic location in the Western Caribbean, it constitutes an important passage site for a considerable proportion of migratory bird species during their movements from North America to South America and vice versa. However, the birds in Figure 7j are a pelican and several terns, which are local, not migratory. In fact, there are more than 100 migratory species recorded on the islands (Hilty & Brown, 1986; McNish, 2003). According to the Humboldt Institute and Bird Life International, the high diversity of birds led to the inclusion of the ASAPSC, which forms part of the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, and represent an IBA (Important Bird Area) (Moreno et al., 2003; Romero, 2005). Several subspecies of birds are endemic, these include Green-breasted mango (Anthracothorax prevostii hendersoni), Black-whiskered vireo (Vireo alélitequus subsp. Canescens), Tropical mockingbird (Mimus gilvus subsp. Magnirostris), Yellow warbler (Golden) (Setophaga petechia flavida), Bananaquit (Coereba flaveola oblita), and Black-faced grassquit (Tiaris bicolor grandior).
Among the aqua faunal species found here are oysters and crabs. The Blue land crab (Cardisoma guanhumi) (Figure 7k) has been the main semi-terrestrial animal used in the island's diet, culture, and tradition for generations. It is present on San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina, but its distribution throughout the islands is not uniform. The number of crabs in the forest is much higher (up to 15 times) than in cultivated areas. The coral species (Figure 7l) found in the island's shores are staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis), Elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata), pillar coral, brain coral (Figure 7m), encrusting gorgonian or encrusting polyps (Erythropodium caribaeorum), star coral (Astreopora sp.), soft corals (Alcyonacea sp.), finger coral (Porites porites) and sea pens (cnidarians). The only wild mammal that has been recorded from San Andrés is the Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis). In the ASAPSC, the iguana (Figure 7n) is one of the most representative fauna icons, however, it is under strict protection, given the hunting of its species, that is consumed in dishes derived from the typical island gastronomy. Given the above, the "Johnny Cay Regional Park" was created, where these reptiles are raised and protected, in addition to being the main attraction for residents and tourists who visit the key. Through resolution 622 of August 23, 2018, Coralina adopted environmental protection measures for manta rays (Figure 7ñ) associated with "tourist activities that involve baiting, feeding and/or direct contact with them" and others are issued provisions.
4.3 Cultural heritage
The ASAPSC is an unmissable place for lovers of culture (Figure 8), with several various musical, linguistic, historical, and architectural attractions. Among the elements that are part of tangible cultural heritage, the following stand out: churches and temples religious, which represent the foundations of the idiosyncrasy and spirituality of the Raizal in which oral ancestral ties and the transfer of customs are ensured, education and literacy; the island house; public buildings of historical value, such as María Inmaculada School or the Sunrise Park administration building; musical instruments; literature; plastic arts; archeological artifacts. The insularity is given by the fact that in the ASAPSC, there is a closed Raizal society, which reinforces the feeling of isolation of the rest of the world. These characteristics have allowed them to be preserved cultural elements that would probably have disappeared in another geography and have created a close relationship between the habitants and their environment.
The natural and cultural potential geosites with high use values (ordered by quantitative assessment) reveal very interesting aspects on the regional evolutionary history of the ASAPSC, including several coastal erosion and sedimentation landforms, biodiversity, and cultural legacy (Table 4). The inventory and quantitative assessment of the most valuable occurrences of the natural and cultural heritage are very important in any geoconservation strategy and in the establishment of priorities in site management. The inventory of sites of geological interest includes the identification of potential geosites, the qualitative assessment, the characterizacion and selection, whereas the quantification refers to numerical assessment and descriptive analysis of results.
Thirty-nine (39) sites of geological interest were identified, described, and valued, which, according to the adapted and modified methodology of Brilha (2016), present a scientific, educational, and tourist value of 36.5 to 58.0. Of this inventory of sites of geological interest, twenty-three (23) have potential as geosites because they have a score equal to or greater than 50.0. Morgan's Cave (GEO-4) and Rocky Cay (GEO-13) represent the most important geosites according to the score obtained (58.0), followed by Johnny Cay (GEO-7) and McBeam Mangrove Swamp National Park (GEO-27) with 57.0; Old Point Mangroves National Park (GEO-9) with 56.5; Three Brothers Cays (GEO-26) with 56.0; Haynes Cay (GEO-11) with 55.5; Crab Cay (GEO-29) with 55.0; Santander Cay (GEO-8), El Cove Bay (GEO-19) and Mangrove Swamp (GEO-36), with 54.5; Spratt Bight Beach (GEO-6) and Ecological footpath (GEO-35) with 54.4; Cocoplum Bay Beach (GEO-12) and Morgan's Head (GEO-32) with 53.5; Coral reef platform (GEO-18) with 53.0; Rose Cay (GEO-10) with 52.5; Big Pond Lagoon (GEO-2) with 52.0; Fresh Water Bay Beach (GEO-22) with 51.5; South West Bay Beach (GEO-23) and Fort Warwick (GEO-34), with 51.0; The Peak (GEO-31) with 50.5; Manzanillo Beach (GEO-24) with 50.0. From the educational and tourist point of view, these geosites reflect the need to carry out the installation of signage and interpretive panels aimed at a general public, which facilitate not only the development of geo-educational activities but also the identification and understanding of the geological elements and processes present there. It is equally important to note that the absence of infrastructure and facilities to provide security and a better experience to the public is mainly observed.
The intangible cultural heritage of the ASAPSC refers to the ancestral practices, expressions, knowledge, or techniques transmitted by the Raizal people from generation to generation, finding in the coexistence with the sea their reason for being. These valuable elements (religion, language, literature, music, gastronomy, or identity) contribute to cultural diversity, creativity and social well-being, territorial management, the creation of territorial identity, and the generation of economic income, although many of these elements are at serious risk of disappearance. Through many generations, the Raizal people have transmitted cultural practices in harmony with the preservation of species and with the protection of this natural environment.
Gastronomy is one of the distinctive features and occupies a privileged place in the cultural structure. It is rich in seafood (fish, crabs, snails, among others) and other components of Raizal culture, but rundown is distinguished as a typical dish. Raizal people are the native population from San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina, they are product of the miscegenation between indigenous, Spanish, French, English, Dutch, and Africans people, prioritizing the British culture, since it was the one that most strongly colonized the islands from the Caribbean. Its Afro-Anglo-Antillean cultural roots are manifested in a strong cultural identity that differs from the rest of the Colombian population and the Raizal language is one of the Caribbean dialects of English, which have many Africanisms. In addition, the archipelago was visited by slaves and pirates, who used these islands as a refuge, lair, and storage of all the stolen wealth. Morgan's Cave is one of the most outstanding attractions from San Andrés, since it contains the most striking character of the seas, "Henry Morgan", whose legends and stories are the favorite by natives and tourists.
A Carib Indian aboriginal population never settled on the islands, but San Andrés and Providencia were visited now and then by Miskito Indians from the Central American coast, who came to catch fish and turtles. The islands were "discovered" early in the 16th century by Spanish sailors. The first settlers on the islands at the beginning of the 17th century were Dutch smugglers and English Puritans. The islands changed hands between English and Spanish rulers from 1641 to 1822, with occasional conquests by pirates from Jamaica and Haiti. (Parsons 1956, 1964, as cited in Geister & Díaz, 2007, p. 8)
Even though San Andrés Island has experienced an economic boom since 1953, when it was declared a free port by the government of General Rojas Pinilla, it has a shortage of water, inadequate waste management, excess population, high levels of poverty, erosion of most of its beaches, overexploitation of fishing and environmental problems; in addition to this, thousands of tourists visit the ASAPSC annually, however, the overwhelming pace of unsustainable tourism has been devouring this territory. Undoubtedly, the economy of the population is sustained by tourism and depends to a great extent on it, although ecological damage over a long time has contributed to the constant deterioration of San Andrés Island. In 2000, it was declared Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO, named "Seaflower Biosphere Reserve", which not only includes the islands, but also about 10% of the Caribbean Sea, amounting to a vast marine area of 300000 km2 in order to ensure the preservation and conservation of this ecosystem, which is rich in biodiversity (Howard, 2006). Unfortunately, the surroundings of San Andrés Island and the pier have become a graveyard of forgotten rusty boats, among which two colossal ships stand out to the detriment of the landscape that the beautiful sea of seven colors offers us. Over exploitation of fishing has caused some species, such as the shovel snail -which has been part of the island's gastronomy-, to be on the way to extinction. A large part of the population lacks a water supply, mainly extracted from aquifers, due to the lack of rivers and natural sources.
The ASAPSC represents a territory whose literary tradition, although limited, is significant, highlighting different stories, poems, autobiographies, or novels by various writers that present a historical radiography of the culture of these Caribbean islands. Its literature reflects the political and social makeup in the shadow of different empires and rulers, but they are especially a window on the way in which the cultural identity of the islanders was created due to the historical events that took place in their territory. On the other hand, the regional identity is perceived as a product of numerous nationalities that have contributed to shaping who they are today. The original is African, although these roots are not the only ones that distinguish the inhabitants of this region, because it is precisely because of their cultural, linguistic, and racial wealth that they are in a special category on the Colombian ethnographic map. The inhabitants of the ASAPSC are an amalgamation of all the cultures that once populated the islands, and in the stories we can see how the current San Andrés was arrived at.
Another very important aspect in the molding of the island identity refers to religion, since the Baptist church was inserted in the ASAPSC, which was left by the English-speaking settlers, although with the arrival of the Spanish and the establishment of the Colombian Government, the presence of the State was manifested mainly through institutions such as the ecclesiastical. A narrative is an account of relevant events and experiences over time. Typically, the unique pattern of a narrative reflects the meaning attributed by the narrator and sheds light on the motivations and behaviors (Woodside & Megehee, 2010). However, the island narrative has ultimately contributed to preserving, rescuing, and promoting their ancestral values, adopting the term "Raizal" to differentiate themselves from Afro-descendants and to recognize themselves as natives of a unique place in all aspects. In this way, they have survived the social, economic, and cultural changes of the Caribbean islands. Today, Raizal people struggle to maintain a culture as intact as possible; to speak Creole language; to practice their religion; to listen, dance, and create their music; for their authenticity as islander people. The multiple relationships that have emerged between the islanders and the natural environment, that characterize the ASAPSC, have been significantly shaped and informed by different narratives (Table 6).
4.4 Geotourism assets and opportunities
From a general perspective of tourism development, the ASAPSC has a diverse mix of natural and cultural assets. Geotourism specifically focuses on geology and landscape. This region has natural assets that provide a range of ecosystem services to the region and form the backbone of the drive for nature tourism. Some of these assets are geotourism resources, sufficient in diversity and geographic distribution in the region to sustain their development; however, it is important that government entities in the region consider starting to capitalize on the full potential and the opportunities of these assets. The annual arrival of tourists to this region, whose number has reached one and a half million visitors, currently has the environmental authorities of the Coralina Corporation concerned about the negative impact it could cause on the local ecosystem. Therefore, it is important to consider the carrying capacity, which is an indicator that has been implemented to establish how many people can live in the island territory, to prevent the deterioration of natural resources from continuing to accelerate due to their over-exploitation. In this way, it is necessary to immediately implement a sustainable tourism program in order to contribute to the management of the ASAPSC as a tourist destination. Geotourism in this archipelago -which can take advantage of its natural and cultural heritage- is an alternative for sustainability and for generating social, economic, and environmental impacts, meeting the needs of visitors, industry, environment, and host communities.
There are different tourist attractions in the ASAPSC: Morgan's Head, a rock slope in the western part of Santa Catalina Island; Old Providence National Natural Park, Cangrejo Cay, The Peak and Manzanillo Bay in Providencia Island.
North End is known locally as the center of the San Andrés Island, which concentrates the hotel zone, commercial, banking and government; Islander House Museum, created by the natives in order to acquaint visitors with the culture and customs of the inhabitants; La Loma, a town inhabited almost entirely by natives of the island and one of the best places to appreciate the traditional island architecture; Santander Cay, located opposite the pier and close to the coast of the San Andrés Bay, and whose name comes from the English settlers that cultivated cotton and coconut; The Cliff (Peñon), limestone formation surrounding the airport, which is a rocky cliff about 30 m high above the airport; Cocoplum Bay, a beach located in the village of San Luis, right in front of the Rocky Cay, because of its shallow depth, with its white sand and blue green sea, is a favorite spot for tourists; La Piscinita, a natural formation that built the sea in the coral rock that surrounds the island; Rocky Cay Beach, on the north side of the San Andrés Island. (Best Beach for Rest, n.d.)
The ASAPSC is surrounded on its northwest side by a small coral reef and several keys that are home to varied fauna and flora, which are visited by many tourists every year. It is said that the small key in San Andrés Bay is the most visited place in this archipelago. Johnny Cay is a small coral islet that is located 1.5 km to the north of San Andrés Town. It is a scenic place with white-sand beaches surrounded by coconut plantations. The sea here is not suitable for swimming as the current of flow could be risky. A natural park was also created here in 2001. Haynes Cay is the place where cruise ships dock. There are a number of large coral farms here, with variety of species. The place is also popular for water sports activities like snorkeling and diving. Diving here with a mask and sandals (protection against sea urchins) colorful fish species can be seen. The Aquarium Cay is off to the east coast of San Andrés, adjoins the Haynes Cay. It is a popular center for snorkeling since the sea here has shallow and calm waters. However, the departmental administration has restricted the realization of tours to reach the ship stranded in Rocky Cay, because it represents a danger to the integrity of tourists and residents due to the advanced deterioration in which it is found.
San Andrés Island has wonderful and surprising landscapes, the declaration as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO and the national fervor revived in Colombian people due to the intense dispute with Nicaragua; all this make this region have valuable potential for the development of geotourism activities. The relevant scientific, educational, and aesthetic values of the natural and cultural heritage convert this region into a very important resource for outdoor tourism, sports, and health attractions (Figure 9). In addition to these activities, the ecotourism -such as hikes and birdwatching- will support other outdoor activities. However, it is necessary to understand the natural and cultural heritage of this region through geoeducation programs.
Geoeducation, which has attracted the attention of scientists and educators (Lewis & Hampton, 2015), plays an important role in integrating local communities to improve their quality of life, providing social equity. In order to improve the outreach of heritage resources and the tourist experience through the understanding of geosites, it would be very useful to implement interpretative panels and georoutes to guide visitors through the natural and cultural heritage of the ASAPSC, improving its outreach information and upgrading the tourist infrastructure, trying to draw the attention of tourists who come to this region for several reasons. A better understanding of the heritage resources of the ASAPSC and their field of action contributes to the sensitization on geoconservation. Therefore, geoeducation contributes to the conservation of this region of the Colombian Caribbean Sea and represents the most effective way to guarantee the contribution to the preservation of the environment in the long term, providing a combination of understanding, attitudes, and skills.
In the present article, we agree with Wakil et al. (2021), about how the resilience of local communities should be promoted in conjunction with the supply and demand of tourism. Figure 10 illustrates the geotourism operating system based on supply and demand, in which the interrelation between attractions, marketing, information, infrastructure, facilities and services is essential.
However, geotourism development is strongly influenced by several external factors (Gunn & Var, 2002). Sustainable development between nature and humans will guarantee viable economic activities in the long-term, maintain essential ecological processes and respect the socio-cultural authenticity of local communities. From the social, environmental, and economic perspective, it is important to highlight that the heritage resources of the ASAPSC play a vital role and could provide strong support for the development of geotourism and geoeducation activities for geoconservation purposes of this territory and its patrimonial attributes.
5. Conclusions
This research seeks to show and promote the importance of preserving the natural and cultural heritage of the ASAPSC, allowing to identify geosites with high potential for tourist attraction, due to their scientific, academic, landscape, educational, religious, economic, gastronomic, social, cultural, artistic, historical, and aesthetic value for the geotourism development. We consider that this region can explicitly promote geotourism as a component of the tourism products available in the region. There is no doubt that it has the patrimonial resources and potential to support a coordinated, well-defined, and integrated promotion of geotourism. Geotourism is a nascent term in Colombia, which favors the strengthening of the territorial identity, and which can also be used as a strategy for its protection and development thanks to its social, environmental, cultural, historical, scientific, gastronomic, academic, aesthetic, economic, religious and sporting interest. These activities contribute to various factors at the national and international level, highlighting job creation, increase in arrival of tourists, trade, development of socio-economic activities, academic and cultural exchange. One of the best ways to raise awareness in local communities of the ASAPSC about the value of the natural and cultural heritage is through geoeducation, which can also contribute to its protection, conservation, and preservation. Therefore, it is important to establish strategic agreements with local communities, companies, public and private institutions, organizations, etc., with the aim of creating sustainable and sustainable plans focused on the conservation and preservation of the use and management of their heritage.
6. Acknowledgements
We want to thank the people and institutions that have made this work a reality. Firstly, the Universidad de La Guajira, Universidad Industrial of Santander, and Universidad de Pamplona, which provided support to our research. We also wish to express our sincere thanks to the students of Geology from these institutions who have inspired our work. The authors are more than grateful to the anonymous reviewers, and institutions and personal staff mentioned above for their support.
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