Siete años después: Medio Oriente y el contexto internacional
Seven Years Later: The Middle East in the International Context
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Resumen
Este artículo explora la relación entre contexto internacional –entendido en términos de geografía, distribución del poder y agenda normativa mundial– y cambio de régimen o crisis política, a partir de la experiencia de algunos países árabes en la coyuntura crítica inaugurada en Túnez en diciembre de 2010. En todos los casos, el entorno internacional ha sido con frecuencia determinante en el desarrollo de dinámicas económicas, sociales y políticas, aunque los objetivos y las consecuencias de esa interacción son muy distintos según el país. El examen se desarrolla en torno a tres áreas temáticas: economía y política, violencia, y política exterior.
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Referencias (VER)
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Kienle, E. (2013). Nouveaux régimes, vieilles politiques? Réponses islamistes aux défis économiques et sociaux. Critique Internationale, 4 (61), 85-103.
Kienle, E. y Laurence L. (2013). Comprendre les enjeux économiques et sociaux des soulèvements arabes. Critique internationale, 4 (61), 11-17.
Kington, T. (2017). Rome “paying Libyan traffickers” to stem flow of Mediterranean refugees. The Times.
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Macaron, J. (2017). Israel, Hezbollah playing Russian roulette in Syria. Al-Monitor.
Malmvig, H. (2015). Coming in from the cold: How we may take sectarian identity politics seriously in the Middle East without playing to the tunes of regional power. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 32-35). POMEPS.
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Mustafa, A. (2013). Gulf threats to liquidate 4,400 economic projects in Egypt. En Al-Mesryoon.
Noble, P. (2008). From ARAB system to Middle Eastern system? Regional pressures and constraints. En Bahgat K. y Hillal Dessouki, Ai E. (eds.), The Foreign Policies of Arab States. The Challenges of Globalization (pp. 67-166). Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press.
Nohlen, D. y Fernández B. (1991). Democratización y política exterior. Análisis comparado en torno a tres casos: Argentina, Brasil y Uruguay. Revista de Estudios Internacionales, 24 (94), 229-259.
Perthes, V. (ed.) (2004). Arab Elites: Negotiating the Politics of Change. Lynne Rienner Pub.
Picard, E. (2016). El Líbano frente a la crisis en Siria. En Conde, G., Tawil, M. y Pastor, C. (eds.). Mundo árabe. Levantamientos populares, contextos, crisis y reconfiguraciones (307-324). México D.F.: El Colegio de México-CIDE.
Pierret, T. y Allal, A. (eds.) (2013). Au coeur des révoltes arabes. Devenir révolutionnaires. Paris: Armand Colin.
Portail du Ministère des Finances de la Tunisie (2015). Dette publique. Recuperado de http://www.finances.gov.tn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=39&Itemid=323&lang=fr
Ramírez, N. y Ruiz de Elvira, L. (2013). Dudas sobre Siria. El País. Recuperado de http://elpais.com/elpais/2013/09/25/opinion/1380104964_211340.html
Schmitter, P. C. (2016). A balance sheet of the vices and virtues of ‘populisms’. European University Institute and Central European Institute. Recuperado de https://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/SPS/Profiles/Schmitter/PCSBalanceSheetApr06.pdf
Scokpol, Th. (1979). States and Social Revolutions: a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge University Press.
Séréni, J. P. (2017). Les sombres prévisions du Fonds Monétaire International et de la Banque Mondiale. Orient XXI.
Sten, E. (2015). Beyond geosectarianism: Political systems and international relations in the Middle East. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 68-70). POMEPS.
Tawil, M. (2014). Las consecuencias en política exterior del proceso de liberalización en Túnez y Egipto: su carácter social al descubierto. Foro Internacional, LIV (3), 624-660.
Telhami, S. (2013). The World Through Arab Eyes: Arab Public Opinion and the Reshaping of the Middle East. New York: Basic Books.
Whitehead, L. (ed.) (1996). The International Dimensions of Democratization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Aïta, S. (2013). Variables et enjeux économiques du soulèvement. En Burgat F. y Paoli B. (dirs.), Pas de printemps pour la Syrie. Paris: La Découverte.
Albaret, M. y Devin, G. (2016). Los países del Sur en Naciones Unidas. Foro Internacional, LVI (1), 13-39.
Alshaali, A. (2014). Egypt’s dire need to wean off subsidies. Gulf News. Recuperado de http://gulfnews.com/business/features/egypt-s-dire-need-towean-off-subsidies-1.1326149.
Aronson, G. (2014). Washington loosens Egypt arms embargo. Al-Monitor. Recuperado de http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/04/apache-helicopters-egypt-arms-embargo-loosenswashington.html
Ashour, O. (2012). Egypt’s new old government. Project Syndicate. Recuperado de http://www.projectsyndicate.org/commentary/egypt-s-new-oldgovernment-by-omar-ashour.
Ayoob, M. (2004). Third World Perspectives on Humanitarian Intervention. Global Governance, 10 (1), 99-118.
Bahout, J. (2017). La difficile définition d’une «doctrine Macron» au Proche-Orient et au Maghreb. Orient, XXI.
Balanche, F. (2012). Metropolización y mundialización: factores de inestabilidad política en el mundo árabe. Foro Internacional, 208 LII (2), 287-321.
Bozarslan, H. (2015). Révolution et état de violence. Moyen-Orient 2011-2015. Paris: CNRS Éditions.
Brand, U. (2005). Order and regulation: Global Governance as a hegemonic discourse of international politics? Review of International Political Economy, 12 (1), 155-176.
Bush, S. (2015). Forms of international pressure and the Middle East. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 13-15). POMEPS. Recuperado de https://pomeps.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/POMEPS_Studies_16_IR_Web1.pdf
Carapicco, S. (2013). Political Aid and Arab Activism: Democracy Promotion, Justice, and Representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Centre d’actualités de l’ONU (2017). Libye: la relance du processus politique redonne espoir à un pays “atomisé” par des agendas concurrents. Recuperado de http://www.un.org/apps/newsFr/storyF.asp?NewsID=40531#.WireKEriaUk
Dawisha, A. (1985). Islam in Foreign Policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dixon, M. (2011). An Arab Spring. Review of African Political Economy, 38 (128), 309-316.
Dot-Pouillard, N. (2012). Les révolutions arabes entre césures et remembrances: tiers-mondisme, question palestinienne et utopies chiliastiques.
En Geisser, V. (dir.). Les protestations populaires à l’assaut des régimes autoritaires: une «révolution» pour les sciences sociales? L’Année du Maghreb (Dossier spécial). Vol. VIII. Recuperado de http://anneemaghreb.revues.org/1393#entries
El Dahshan, M. (2013). The Latest Plot Twist in Egypt’s IMF Soap Opera. Foreign Policy. Recuperado de http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/05/14/the-latestplot-twist-in-egypts-imf-soap-opera/
El Fegiery, M. (2012). Tyranny of the majority?: Islamists’ ambivalence towards human rights. FRIDE. A European Think-Tank for Global Action. Recuperado de http://fride.org/download/WP_113_Islamists_Ambivalence_about_Human_Rights.pdf
Farouk, Y. (2013). The limits of bureaucratic resistance during Morsi’s rule: An account from within. FikraForum. Recuperado de http://fikraforum.org/?p=3672.
Fawcett, L. (2017). States and sovereignty in the Middle East: Myths and realities. International Affairs, 93 (4), 789-807.
Gazzini, C y El Amrani, Issandr. Oil Zone Fighting Threatens Libya with Economic Collapse (2016). Recuperado de https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/libya/oilzone-fighting-threatens-libya-economic-collapse.
Gause, G. (2015). Ideologies, alliances and underbalancing in the new Middle East cold war. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 16-20). POMEPS.
Geisser, V. (2012). Les protestations populaires à l’assaut des régimes autoritaires: une «révolution» pour les sciences sociales? En Geisser, V. (dir.). Les protestations populaires à l’assaut des régimes autoritaires: une «révolution» pour les sciences sociales?, L’Année du Maghreb (Dossier spécial). Vol. VIII. Recuperado de http://anneemaghreb.revues.org/1393#entries
Gobat, J. y Kostial, K. (2016). Syria’s conflict economy. Recuperado de https://www.imf.org/
Gouette, N. (2017). US, citing human rights, cuts some Egypt aid. CNN.
Gourevitch, P. A. (1978). The second image reversed: The international sources of domestic politics. International Organization, 32 (4), 881-912.
Gourevitch, P. A. (1986). Politics in Hard Times: Comparative Response to International Economic Crises. Ithaca - London: Cornell University Press.
Grugel, J. y Riggirozzi, P. (2012). Post-neoliberalism in Latin America: Rebuilding and reclaiming the state after crisis. Development and Change, 43 (1), 1-21.
Hagopian, F. y Mainwaring, S. (2005). The Third Wave of Democratization in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Haidar, Z. (2013). Syria’s economic collapse. Al-Monitor. Recuperado de http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/business/2013/06/syrian-economylosses-study.html
Haimzadeh, P. (2017). Pourquoi la Libye est-elle toujours en crise depuis la mort de Kadhafi? Orient XXI. Recuperado de http://orientxxi.info/vacomprendre/pourquoi-la-libye-est-elle-toujoursen-crise-depuis-la-mort-de-kadhafi,1937
Halit, M., Kalaycioglu, E. y Akcali, E. (2013). Taming’ Arab social movements: Exporting neoliberal governmentality. Security Dialogue, 44 (5-6), 375-392.
Harris, L. (2003). Popular resistance to globalization and neoliberalism in Latin America. Journal of Developing Societies, 19 (2-3), 136-151.
Hassan, K. (2016). How will Egypt spend its $12B from the IMF? Al-Monitor. Recuperado de http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/fr/originals/2016/11/egypt-loan-imf-budget-deficit-gulf-aid-bailouteconomy.html#ixzz4qiDVmN9f
Herrera, J. (2012). La crise syrienne au prisme latinoaméricain (Venezuela, Brésil, Argentine). Les Carnets de l’ifpo. Recuperado de http://ifpo.hypotheses.org/4144
Kahler, M. (1997). Liberalization and Foreign Policy. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kienle, E. (2013). Nouveaux régimes, vieilles politiques? Réponses islamistes aux défis économiques et sociaux. Critique Internationale, 4 (61), 85-103.
Kienle, E. y Laurence L. (2013). Comprendre les enjeux économiques et sociaux des soulèvements arabes. Critique internationale, 4 (61), 11-17.
Kington, T. (2017). Rome “paying Libyan traffickers” to stem flow of Mediterranean refugees. The Times.
Le Monde (2014). Le FMI débloque 506 millions de dollars pour la Tunisie. Le Monde. Recuperado de http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/01/30/le-fmi-debloque-506-millionsde-dollars-pour-la-tunisie_4356668_3234.html
Lynch, M. (2013). Money to Meddle. Foreign Policy. Recuperado de http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/07/11/money-to-meddle/.
Macaron, J. (2017). Israel, Hezbollah playing Russian roulette in Syria. Al-Monitor.
Malmvig, H. (2015). Coming in from the cold: How we may take sectarian identity politics seriously in the Middle East without playing to the tunes of regional power. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 32-35). POMEPS.
McVeigh, K. (2017). UK’s £2m support for Egypt security projects branded ‘deeply disturbing’. The Guardian.
Middle East Monitor (2017a). Egypt’s foreign debt reaches 60b. Middle East Monitor. Recuperado de https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170106-egypts-foreign-debt-reaches-60bn/
Middle East Monitor (2017b). Egypt’s Budget deficit hits 11bn. Middle East Monitor. Recuperado de https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20170302-egypts-budget-deficit-hits-1bn-in-fy-201617/
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2012). Prime Minister: Qatar Plans to Invest USD 18 billion in Egypt. State of Qatar.
Minoui, D. y Forey S. (2013). L’Égypte de Morsi menacée par la faillite. Le Figaro. Recuperado de http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2013/04/09/01003-20130409ARTFIG00570-l-egypte-de-morsi-menacee-par-lafaillite.php.
Mohsen, K. (2017). Tunisie: le torchon brule entre le gouvernement et l’UGTT. Orient XXI. Recuperado de http://orientxxi.info/magazine/tunisiele-torchon-brule-entre-le-gouvernement-et-lugtt, 1776
Mustafa, A. (2013). Gulf threats to liquidate 4,400 economic projects in Egypt. En Al-Mesryoon.
Noble, P. (2008). From ARAB system to Middle Eastern system? Regional pressures and constraints. En Bahgat K. y Hillal Dessouki, Ai E. (eds.), The Foreign Policies of Arab States. The Challenges of Globalization (pp. 67-166). Cairo: The American University of Cairo Press.
Nohlen, D. y Fernández B. (1991). Democratización y política exterior. Análisis comparado en torno a tres casos: Argentina, Brasil y Uruguay. Revista de Estudios Internacionales, 24 (94), 229-259.
Perthes, V. (ed.) (2004). Arab Elites: Negotiating the Politics of Change. Lynne Rienner Pub.
Picard, E. (2016). El Líbano frente a la crisis en Siria. En Conde, G., Tawil, M. y Pastor, C. (eds.). Mundo árabe. Levantamientos populares, contextos, crisis y reconfiguraciones (307-324). México D.F.: El Colegio de México-CIDE.
Pierret, T. y Allal, A. (eds.) (2013). Au coeur des révoltes arabes. Devenir révolutionnaires. Paris: Armand Colin.
Portail du Ministère des Finances de la Tunisie (2015). Dette publique. Recuperado de http://www.finances.gov.tn/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=39&Itemid=323&lang=fr
Ramírez, N. y Ruiz de Elvira, L. (2013). Dudas sobre Siria. El País. Recuperado de http://elpais.com/elpais/2013/09/25/opinion/1380104964_211340.html
Schmitter, P. C. (2016). A balance sheet of the vices and virtues of ‘populisms’. European University Institute and Central European Institute. Recuperado de https://www.eui.eu/Documents/DepartmentsCentres/SPS/Profiles/Schmitter/PCSBalanceSheetApr06.pdf
Scokpol, Th. (1979). States and Social Revolutions: a comparative analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge University Press.
Séréni, J. P. (2017). Les sombres prévisions du Fonds Monétaire International et de la Banque Mondiale. Orient XXI.
Sten, E. (2015). Beyond geosectarianism: Political systems and international relations in the Middle East. En International Relations Theory and a Changing Middle East (pp. 68-70). POMEPS.
Tawil, M. (2014). Las consecuencias en política exterior del proceso de liberalización en Túnez y Egipto: su carácter social al descubierto. Foro Internacional, LIV (3), 624-660.
Telhami, S. (2013). The World Through Arab Eyes: Arab Public Opinion and the Reshaping of the Middle East. New York: Basic Books.
Whitehead, L. (ed.) (1996). The International Dimensions of Democratization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.